Spices are a fixture in the modern kitchen, used universally in dishes all around the world. But while these aromatic and flavoursome cooking tools are accessible to us all today, for most of human history, they were considered a luxury good, and one worth going to war over. These fragments of bark, seed, and fruit have served as a catalyst for much of the exploration, intercontinental conflict and trade of the last few millennia. Let’s unearth the history and influence of the spice trade from ancient times to the modern world.
Ancient Origins
The first documented uses of spices can be traced as far back as the Bronze Age, with tablets from early Greek periods depicting their use. However, the story of the spice trade really gets going around the 4th Century BCE, when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, and in the process, established Alexandria as a centre for the trading of spices. Western traders would travel to Alexandria to conduct business with Asian and African spice merchants, using trade routes like the ones below.
For the next couple of centuries, the popularity of spices continued to grow as many academics recognised their uses as medicinal, therapeutic, and culinary tools. Trade routes to Egypt became priorities for those wishing to capitalise on the booming industry. In 30 BC, the Roman Empire took control of Egypt, and became the dominant player in the spice trade. Routes connecting Alexandria to the Red Sea in the east, and west to Greece and Rome created much opportunity for traders of this time. Sea trade routes in the Indian Ocean were increasingly favoured due to the rise of monsoon-based navigation. Under Roman rule, around 120 ships per year were sailing to India for the procurement of spices.
Cloves were used in China as far back as 600 BC, not only for cooking, but to freshen breath. Guests to the emperor were required to hold cloves in their mouths when addressing him.
Rome has fallen
The collapse of the Great Roman Empire is its own story, but for now, a quick summary should be enough to give us context with regards to the spice trade. The Crisis of the Third Century brought with it economic instability, corruption, violence and disease, all of which culminated in the division of the Roman Empire into the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, and the Western Roman Empire. Troubles continued in the Western Roman Empire for another couple of centuries, resulting in its collapse in 476 AD. As a result, control of the spice trade fell into the hands of the Byzantine Empire, who would use their geographical location between Europe, Asia and Africa to remain in a position of power for the next thousand years.
The word ‘salary’ comes from the Roman custom of paying soldiers in salt.
Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, trade in spices slowed as Europe descended into the Dark Ages. The emergence of Christianity paired with the feudal system governing most parts of Europe led to decreased trade and diplomacy with the outside world, allowing Muslims in the east to take control over many of the spice routes. It would take one of the most brutal and deadly war campaigns ever seen, in the form of the crusades from the 11th to 13th century, for Europe to regain a proper foothold in the spice trade again.
These religiously driven conflicts reestablished European connections with the East, introducing a renewed taste for Eastern spices. Venice, an Italian city-state, played a crucial role in this revival due to its strategic location. By the late 12th century, Venice had grown into a trading powerhouse, capitalising on the weakened Byzantine Empire, particularly after the Fourth Crusade’s devastating sack of Constantinople in 1204. The Byzantine Empire, albeit reclaiming Constantinople in 1261, was severely weakened and began to decline, ultimately falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. With the Byzantines out of the picture and the Ottomans controlling land-based routes, Europe sought alternative sea routes to Asia, eventually paving the way to the Age of Discovery.
Exploration Time
The Venetians had a monopoly over the spice trade coming from the East, and other European countries weren’t happy about it. This, along with the fall of the Byzantines and rise of the less Europe-friendly Ottomans, led many leaders to seek out alternative routes to India. In the 15th century, spices were one of the most lucrative goods coming into Europe, with merchants charging a 3200% mark-up for pepper. Western European powers could not lay idle while profits like this were possible, and so began the Age of Exploration.
Despite not boasting the same power as its neighbors, Portugal blazed a trail down the coast of Africa, a journey initiated by Prince Henry the Navigator and culminating with Bartolomeu Dias reaching Africa’s tip in 1488. Around this time, Christopher Columbus sought funding from the kingdoms of Britain, Spain, and Portugal for a westward voyage. His attempts had limited success, but spurred by the unexpected achievements of their little Portuguese neighbour, Spanish monarchs, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, agreed to sponsor his venture. Columbus, hoping to find India, set sail westward in 1492, only to discover something entirely unexpected. He landed in the Caribbean and found the chilli pepper in Haiti, a discovery that was an instant hit back in Europe. Nevertheless, it was Portugal that truly thrived in this era, reaching India by way of Vasco de Gama in 1498 and establishing a trade center in Goa, as well as being first to circumnavigate the globe, courtesy of Ferdinand Magellan. This era brought a radical transformation to the spice trade, with Spain and Portugal taking the reins. They also established the first colonies in the Americas, a testament to their global reach and influence during this period.
It wouldn’t take long, however, for new maritime powers to establish a strong presence in the world’s oceans, and chip away at the monopoly Spain and Portugal had created. The late 16th and early 17th century saw the creation of the Dutch and British East India Trading Companies. While Spain and Portugal had a head start of about a century, it didn’t take long for these new powers to catch up on the colonial scoreboard, most notably the British, who had begun their campaign of becoming the largest empire the world has ever seen. Spices and other valuable resources continued to be plundered from countries in every direction. The Dutch were particularly aggressive in the following decades, taking control of the spice trade by brute force, with little regard for native populations.
The tiny Banda Islands in Indonesia, also known as the Spice Islands, were once the world’s only source of nutmeg and mace. They were so valuable that in 1667, the British traded their claim on the islands to the Dutch for a different island: Manhattan, now the heart of New York City.
All Good Things
We’re going to gloss over much of the 18th century, during which a lot of non-spice-related conflict occurred, which we will surely cover in the future. The main thing to note is that things were changing. Many spices that were once exclusive to remote islands in East Asia were being successfully transplanted to other regions of the world, and the Industrial Revolution was about to change everything. Britain, despite losing the lands they had claimed across the Atlantic, were still growing in power, colonising India and building a port in Singapore. With the Industrial Revolution, however, came more global trade, and the importance of spices, both politically and economically, began to dwindle. Commodities such as tea, coffee, and chocolate began to take priority, as well as herbs that could be grown locally. The spice trade became decentralised following the dissolution of East India Trading Companies, and today, spices are an attainable, everyday product, rather than a luxury reserved for the wealthy.
The story of the spice trade through the ages is about much more than the spices themselves. It tells a tale of greed, conflict, and a thirst for power, that consistently led to untold death and destruction in the countries from which these curious flakes and powders were extracted. Once the largest industry on the planet, the spice trade, whose historical influence has few equals, is certainly worthy of our interest and understanding.